Flexibility training, or stretching, is
used in varying forms by practically every coach, athlete and physiotherapist on a regular basis. That is to say, a form of stretching is likely to take place at some point in every training or therapy session. In terms of its scientific basis, flexibility training is probably the least understood of fitness components. This article will discuss research findings and recommendations to explain why and how stretching should best be carried out.What does it mean? Flexibility is defined as the static maximum range of motion (ROM) available about a joint. The largest limiting factor of static ROM is the structure of the joint itself. Thus, even after endless stretching exercise, there will be a limit as to how much movement is available. In addition, joint structures can vary between individuals, and this must be recognised when assessing flexibility standards in athletes. Most of the variability in static ROM is due to the elastic properties of the muscle and tendons attached across the joints. ‘Stiff’ muscles and tendons reduce the ROM while ‘compliant’ muscles and tendons increase ROM. It is these elastic properties that are altered after stretching exercises. When a muscle is held for some time under tension in a static stretch, the passive tension in the muscle declines, ie the muscle ‘gives’ a little. This is called a 'viscoelastic stretch relaxation response’. Passive tension is defined as the amount of external force required to lengthen the relaxed muscle. Obviously, the less external force required, the more pliable the muscle. This increased pliability is maintained for up to 90 minutes after the stretch (Moller et al, 1985). In the long term, regular static stretching will bring about permanent increase in static ROM, which is associated with a decrease in passive tension. Experimentally, this was shown by Toft et al (1989), who found a 36% decrease in passive tension of the plantar flexors after three weeks of regular calf stretches. The relationship between static ROM and passive tension has been further supported by McHugh et al (1998). These researchers demonstrated that maximum static hip flexion ROM was inversely correlated with the passive tension of the hamstrings during the mid-range of hip flexion. This suggests that the ease with which the muscle can be stretched through the mid- ROM is increased if the maximum static ROM is improved. The concept that an increased static ROM results in more pliant mechanical elastic properties of the muscle suggests that static stretching is beneficial to sports performance.
Flexibility and performance
Research into the effects of flexibility of stretch shortening cycle (SSC)
movements (plyometrics) has shown that increased flexibility is related to augmented force production during SSC movements. In contrast, running studies have shown that flexibility has little performance effect, which is odd because running is a kind of SSC movement. For example, De Vries (1963) showed that while prestretching increased static ROM in sprinters, it had no effect on speed or energy cost during the 100-yard dash. Interestingly, it has been shown that stiffer leg muscles in endurance athletes may make them more economical in terms of oxygen consumption at sub-max speeds. The reason for these converse findings is probably related to the principle of specificity, which seems to underlie all sports training. The sprints and running studies above compared static ROM and stretches with performance, while the SSC research compared active stiffness with performance. Holding a maximum static stretch, and reducing passive tension, is a completely different mechanical action to those practised in actual sports, where joints are moving at fast speeds and muscles are contracting while they are changing length. Thus static ROM may not be an effective flexibility measurement to relate to performance. On the other hand, active stiffness is a measurement of the force required to stretch a previously contracted muscle, and is therefore more sports-specific. It seems logical that the ease with which a contracted muscle can change length will have an impact on the performance of an SSC movement, so active stiffness is a more appropriate parameter to measure flexibility for sports performance. Along the same lines, Iashvili (1983) found that active ROM and not passive ROM was more highly correlated with sports performance. In this instance, active ROM is defined as the ROM that athletes can produce by themselves, which will usually be less than the passive ROM, which is the maximum static ROM available when assisted manually or by gravity. For example, active ROM would be the height an athlete could lift his or her own leg up in front using the hip flexor muscles, whereas the passive ROM would be maximum height the leg could be lifted by a partner. Athletes must be able to generate the movement themselves, and this suggests that for improving sports performance it is active ROM that should be developed and not passive ROM. A sprinter must have enough active ROM in the hip flexors and hamstrings to comfortably achieve full knee lift and full hip extension at the toe-off point of the running gait to ensure a good technique and full stride length. Arguably, any further passive static ROM developed through passive static stretching will not provide any extra benefit, especially since the joint angular speeds during sprinting are very high.How to improve active ROM
The research suggests that, to improve
sports performance, active stiffness should be reduced and active ROM should be improved. This will be more specific than static stretches which reduce passive tension, since sports involve both movement and muscular contractions. Unfortunately, I have found no studies looking at training methods to reduce active stiffness, but one can assume that they will be similar to the methods used to improve active ROM. Alter (1996)suggests that the active ROM can be improved by any kind of active movement through the available active range of motion. For instance, weight training exercises have been shown to improve active ROM (Tunianyan & Dzhanya, 1984). Ballistic stretches will also develop the active ROM and are endorsed by sports coaches because they have the advantage of being executed at sports-specific speeds. But ballistic stretches must be performed with extreme caution, or they can cause muscle or tendon-strain injuries. If you use them, make sure you begin slowly and with a small ROM, building up speed and full ROM only towards the end. It seems that, as with endurance, strength and speed training, flexibility training follows the specificity principle. This means that if you want to improve your ability to actively move through a full ROM, then active and ballistic mobility exercises, and not static stretching, is the answer. This supports the use of exercises employed by swimmers and runners during their warm-up routines, such as shoulder circles, bum kicks and high-knee skips. These exercises actively take the joints through their available ROM and thus help to prepare them and the muscles to be more pliable during the subsequent activity. Modern coaching techniques advocate the use of dynamic active mobility exercises as essential components of a warm-up routine in the belief that this kind of exercise will be more beneficial to sports performance and less likely to cause injury than static passive stretches. Unfortunately there is little research to support this. Nevertheless, based on the fact that these exercises will be more specific than static stretches and that, through experience, I have found them to be very beneficial, I would strongly recommend them. Let’s take a specific example. To warm up the lower leg before any kind of running activity, I would first walk 20 yards on the toes with straight legs to warm up the calves, then walk on the heels 20 yards to warm up the dorsi flexors. I would then do 20 ankle flexion exercises with each leg. This involves holding one leg up so the ankle is free to move, first fully flexing the ankle bringing the toes right up and then fully extending the ankle pointing the toes away. Start slowly and then speed the movement up, so you flex and extend quickly throughout the full range of motion. This would be an open-chain exercise. The next exercise would be to walk with an exaggerated ankle flexion extension, pulling the toes up on heel contact and pushing right up on to the toes at toe-off. Then finally, do the same while skipping, ensuring the full ankle movement is performed at sports-specific speed. The same rationale can be applied to the knee, hip and shoulder, warming up each joint by taking it through the full range of motion, first slowly and then fast, using both open and closed kinetic chain exercises which are specific to your sport. If you perform these kinds of exercises regularly, you should find that, as well as providing an effective warm-up, they will improve your active ROM and specific mobility patterns during sport.Injury and flexibility
The well-established general rule is
that insufficient ROM, or stiffness, will
increase muscle-strain risks. More
specifically, athletes in different sports
have varying flexibility profiles and
thus varying flexibility needs in order
to avoid injuries. Gleim & McHugh et
al (1997) review various studies
relating flexibility measures or
stretching habits to injury incidence.
Studies of football players show that
flexibility may be important for
preventing injuries. For example, one
study showed that those who stretched
regularly suffered fewer injuries, while
another showed that tighter players
suffered more groin-strain injuries
and a third showed a relationship
between tightness and knee pain.
These findings seem to confirm the
correlation between muscular
tightness and increased muscle strain
risks. Yet studies of endurance runners
have not shown the same results. For
instance, in one famous study by
Jacobs & Berson (1986), it was found
that those who stretched beforehand
were injured more often than nonstretchers.
Other running studies have
found no relationship whatsoever
between flexibility or stretching habits
and injury. On the other hand, one
study of sprinters found that 4 degrees
less hip flexion led to a greater
incidence of hamstring strain. The
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SUCCESSFUL COACHING Dec 2003/Jan 2004 No 8Dec 2003/Jan 2004 No 8
SUCCESSFUL COACHING 3reason for these apparently
contradictory findings is the specific
nature of each sport. With endurance
running, the ankle, knee and hip joints
stay within the mid-range of motion
throughout the whole gait cycle and
therefore maximum static ROM will
have little effect. Sprinting and football
involve movements of much larger
ROM and so depend more heavily on
good flexibility.
There are other established
biomechanical relationships between
flexibility and injury. For example,
ankle ROM is inversely related to rear
foot pronation and internal tibia
rotation. In other words, tight calf
muscles are associated with greater
amounts of rear foot pronation and
lower leg internal rotation. In excess,
these two factors can lead to foot, lower
leg and knee problems. Poor flexibility
in the hip flexor muscles may lead to
an anterior pelvic tilt, where the pelvis
is tilted down to the front. This
increases the lumbar lordosis, which
is the sway in the lower back. This in
turn can lead to a tightening of the
lower-back muscles and predispose the
back to injury.
Similarly, tight pectoral muscles can
lead to a round-shouldered upper-back
posture called kyphosis. During
throwing and shoulder movements,
this forward alignment of the shoulder
can increase the risks of shoulder
impingement problems.
A flexibility/injury relationship also
exists for young adolescents. During the
pubertal growth spurt, the tendons and
muscles tighten dramatically as they lag
behind the rapid bone growth. For
young athletes this poor flexibility may
lead to injury problems, especially
tendonitis type injuries such as Osgood
Schlatters. Thus regular stretching is
essential for young athletes. Remember
it is biological age that counts, so
children in the same team or squad may
need to pay extra attention to flexibility
at different times.
Do not over do it!
As a general guide, when it comes to
preventing injury, one should make
sure that athletes have a normal ROM
in all the major muscle groups and
correct postural alignment in the back.
For instance, hamstring mobility
should allow for 90 degrees of straight
leg hip flexion. Any further ROM
should be developed only if analysis of
the sport’s movements suggests that
extra mobility is required. The obvious
example is gymnastics, where
contestants must perform movements
with extreme ROMs. A footballer who
developed the kinds of flexibility a
gymnast needs would be at greater risk
of injury since hyper mobile joints
become unstable. This relationship
has been shown in American football
players, with those who have overdeveloped
hamstring flexibility
suffering more from ACL strain. A
likely reason is that the flexible
hamstrings allow the knee to
hyperextend more readily.
So the general rule regarding the
relationship between flexibility and
injury is that a normal ROM in each
muscle group will protect against
injury. However, specific movements
in each sport that requires extra ROM
will need extra flexibility development
to guard against injury. This may mean
that an endurance runner’s hamstring
ROM may be less than a sprinter’s,
while a sprinter may not need such a
large ROM in the groin as a tennis
player, whose sport demands large
lateral lunging movements. Extreme
ROMs should only be developed out of
necessity, since they lead to higher
joint-injury risks, just as small ROMs
lead to higher muscle strain risks.
What type of stretches?
The job of the coach and therapist is to
know the normal ROM for each
muscle group and to ensure the athlete
achieves and maintains these
standards. Christopher Norris’s book
(see references) describes in detail how
to assess posture and flexibility in all
major muscles and should be used as
a guide. If any extra flexibility in
specific muscles for specific
movements is required, then this
should also be developed. To develop
flexibility, research suggests (see Alter,
1996) that static stretches should be
held for at least 20 seconds, possibly
up to 60 seconds, to gain a benefit. The
stretches should also be performed
regularly, ideally twice a day, every day.
Stretches should not be painful, and
should not cause the muscle to shake.
Instead, one should feel a mildintensity
stretch and maintain that
position. If the tension eases, taking
the stretch a little further and holding
the new position will help gains
in ROM.
Using partner-assisted stretches
and proprioceptive neuromuscular
facilitation (PNF) stretching will also
produce the same effect. PNF stretches
involve applying an isometric
contraction against the stretch to
invoke a greater relaxation response
and thus enable further ROM to be
reached. The protocol is for the partner
to take the stretch to the initial end
point and hold that position. After
about 20 seconds, the athlete opposes
the position with a strong 10-second
isometric contraction pushing against
the partner. The athlete then relaxes,
breathes out, and the stretching
muscle should relax, allowing the
partner to take it further. This is
repeated. Some research has shown
that PNF stretches are very effective,
although a study by Golhofer et al
(1998) casts doubt on this. These
researchers found that while there was
a relaxation response post-isometric
contraction, it only lasted for a very
short time, and so no real benefit was
gained.
Getting the mechanics right
Regardless of whether you choose
conventional or PNF stretches, by far
the most important factor for
stretching effectiveness is to choose an
exercise with the correct mechanics.
The purpose of static stretches is to
improve or maintain the ROM of a
particular muscle, and the mechanics
of the exercise must ensure that the
target muscle is being stretched
effectively.
For example, a popular, if old
fashioned, way to stretch the
hamstrings is to perform a touch toes
stretch. However, the touch-toes
position requires lower-back flexion,
which leads to a change in pelvic
position, and so the effectiveness of the
stretch for the hamstrings is
compromised. The mechanically
correct way to isolate the hamstrings is
to place one foot slightly in front of the
other, leaning forward from the hips
and keeping the back arched.
Supporting your weight with your
hands on the rear leg, you should then
feel the stretch in the front leg. This
position ensures the back does not flex
and the pelvis remains tilted forward,
so the hamstrings are lengthened
optimally. Try the two different
positions for yourself and you should
feel a significant improvement in
hamstring stretch. You may even find
that by keeping your back in a strict
arch you may not need to lean forward
very far to achieve an effective
hamstring stretch.
The message here is that you must
ensure that any static stretching
exercise you perform allows the target
muscle to be lengthened effectively,
without being limited by other
structures. The mechanics of the
stretch should also ensure that the
athlete is stable and that there are no
undue stresses on any of the joints. For
example, the hurdles stretch places a
strain on the ligaments of the knee and
is no longer recommended. Similarly,
with the hamstring stretch discussed
above, it is important to support one’s
weight with the hands on the rear leg
so that the lower back is protected.
Leaning forward unsupported from a
standing position places a great strain
on it.
The bottom line
There is still much to be researched
about stretching methods before all the
definitive answers can be given.
However, it is probably fair to say that
some of us need to look again at certain
stretching techniques and ask why we
do them. In particular, static stretching
as part of a warm-up is very common,
and yet the research, and logic,
suggests that static stretches will do
little to help prevent injuries or
improve muscle function before an
activity. Instead, active mobility
exercises, those that take the muscles
dynamically through the full ROM,
starting slowly and building up to
sports-specific speeds, are more
appropriate, both pre-exercise and
generally to develop active ROM for
sports performance.
The role of static stretches is
separate from active flexibility
exercises. Rather than as part of a
warm-up, static stretches are necessary
to develop the correct maximum static
ROM that is needed to avoid musclestrain
injuries. Thus static stretches
should be used either after training,
when the muscles are warm, or in a
separate context. These stretches must
be effective, safe and stable in terms of
their mechanics.
As mentioned, a normal ROM in all
muscle groups, plus any sportsspecific
ROMs, should be developed or
maintained with static stretches
following the above guidelines. If
flexibility is well below normal, then
PNF stretches may be considered to
improve flexibility more quickly.
Some of you may not agree with my
conclusions about the role of the
different types of stretching. However,
I ask you to consider carefully the
specificity principle of training and
apply that to flexibility in the same way
as you would to strength. For instance,
no one would consider using only
isometric contractions to develop
strength in athletes. Instead, coaches
try to devise strength exercises that are
as specific as possible, both in terms of
speed and mechanics, to the sportsspecific
condition.
That said, why do so many people
use only static stretches at the
maximum ROM to develop flexibility
for sport, which involves active motion
through various ROMs depending on
the movements?
Raphael Brandon
References
1)
Alter (1996). The Science of Flexibility.Human Kinetics
, Champaign: IL2)
Gleim and McHugh (1997). ‘Flexibilityand its effects on sports performance and
injury.’
Sports Medicine, 24(5): 289-2993)
Norris (1998). Flexibility: Principles andPractice.
Black, London4
SUCCESSFUL COACHING Dec 2003/Jan 2004 No 8Dynamic stretching exercises
The following are examples of
dynamic stretching and mobility
exercises, which could form part of the
warm-up programme in a training
session. Breathe easily whilst
performing all the exercises.
Recent research work (detailed in
Medicine and Science in Sport and
Exercise
33(3): 354-358 and Journal ofStrength and Conditioning Research
15(1): 98-101) suggests that the use of
dynamic stretches – slow controlled
movements through the full range of
motion rather than bouncy, jerky
movements – are the most appropriate
exercises for the warm-up.
The exercises
Neck mobility
Flexion/extension
– Tuck your chininto your chest, and then lift your chin
upward as far as possible – 6 to 10
repetitions.
Lateral flexion
– Lower your left eartoward your left shoulder and then
your right ear to your right shoulder –
6 to 10 repetitions.
Rotation
– Turn your chin laterallytoward your left shoulder and then
rotate it toward your right shoulder –
6 to 10 repetitions.
Shoulder circles
Stand tall, feet slightly wider than
shoulder-width apart, knees slightly
bent. Raise your right shoulder towards
your right ear, take it backwards, down
and then up again to the ear in a
smooth action. Repeat with the other
shoulder – 6 to 10 repetitions.
Arm swings
Stand tall, feet slightly wider than
shoulder-width apart, knees slightly bent
and keep the back straight at all times.
Overhead/down and back
– Swing botharms continuously to an overhead
position and then forward, down, and
backwards – 6 to 10 repetitions.
Side/front crossover
– Swing botharms out to your sides and then cross
them in front of your chest – 6 to 10
repetitions.
Side bends
Stand tall with good posture, feet
slightly wider than shoulder-width
apart, knees slightly bent, hands
resting on hips. Lift your trunk up and
away from your hips and bend
smoothly first to one side, then the
other, avoiding the tendency to lean
either forwards or backwards. Repeat
the whole sequence 16 times with a
slow rhythm, breathing out as you
bend to the side and in as you return to
the centre.
Dec 2003/Jan 2004 No 8
SUCCESSFUL COACHING 5Hip circles and twists
Circles
– With your hands on your hipsand feet spread wider than your
shoulders, make circles with your hips
in a clockwise direction for 10 to 12
repetitions. Then repeat in a counter
clockwise direction.
Twists
– Extend your arms out to yoursides, and twist your torso and hips to
the left, shifting your weight on to the
left foot. Then twist your torso to the
right while shifting your weight to the
right foot. 10 to 12 reps on each side.
Half squat
Stand tall with good posture holding
your hands out in front of you for
balance. Now bend at the knees until
your thighs are parallel with the floor.
Keep your back long throughout the
movement, and look straight ahead.
Make sure that your knees always point
in the same direction as your toes.
Once at your lowest point, fully
straighten your legs to return to your
starting position. Repeat the exercise
16 times with a smooth, controlled
rhythm. Breathe in as you descend,
and out as you rise.
Leg swings
Flexion/extension
– Stand sideways onto the wall, weight on your left leg and
your right hand on the wall for balance,
swing your right leg forward and
backward – 10 to 12 repetitions on
each leg.
Cross-body flexion/abduction
–Leaning slightly forward with both
hands on a wall and your weight on
your left leg, swing your right leg to the
left in front of your body, pointing your
toes upwards as your foot reaches its
furthest point of motion. Then swing
the right leg back to the right as far as
comfortable, again pointing your toes
up as your foot reaches its final point
of movement – 10 to 12 repetitions on
each leg.
Lunges
Stand tall with both feet together.
Keeping the back straight lunge forward
with the right leg approx. 1 to 1. metres.
The right thigh should be parallel with
the ground and the right lower leg
vertical. Spring back to the starting
position. Repeat with the left leg – 12 to
16 repetitions on each leg.
Ankle bounce
Double-leg bounce
– Leaning forwardwith your hands on the wall and your
weight on your toes, raise and lower
both heels rapidly (bounce). Each time,
lift your heels one to two inches from
the ground while maintaining ground
contact with the balls of your feet. 12 to
16 repetitions.
Single-leg bounce
– Leaning forwardwith your hands on a wall and all your
weight on your left foot raise the right
knee forward while pushing the left
heel towards the ground. Then lower
the right foot to the floor while raising
the left heel one or two inches. Repeat
in a rapid, bouncy fashion. 12 to 16
repetitions on each leg.
Remember
The dynamic exercises that you
incorporate into your warm-up
programme should be appropriate to
the movements you would experience
in your sport/event.
Brian Mackenzie
Most coaches, athletes and sports
medicine personnel use stretching
methods as part of the training routine
for athletes. Many would agree that it
forms an integral part of training and
preparation. However, most of the
theoretical and practical factors in
stretching are often incorrectly
applied. The purpose of this article is
primarily to provide an overview on
the theoretical basis of stretching
routines.
What is flexibility?
De Vries defines it as the range of
motion available in a joint, such as the
hip, or series of joints such as the
spine. This encompassing definition
takes into account a number of
important aspects about flexibility.
That is, it deals with a joint or series of
joints used to produce a particular
movement, and it considers that
flexibility is both static and dynamic in
nature.
It is important to highlight some
points regarding flexibility. First,
flexibility is joint specific. That is, you
cannot say someone is flexible just
because they can touch their toes. The
same person may not even be able to
reach around and scratch the small of
his/her back because their shoulder
has poor flexibility. Second, flexibility
is sport specific. You would not expect
a front row rugby forward to have the
same flexibility as an Olympic
gymnast, because it is not required for
his sport. In fact, in a contact sport like
rugby, being that flexible would be
detrimental to his body.
Components of flexibility
Flexibility has two important
components: static and dynamic
flexibility.
1.
Static flexibility describes range ofmotion without a consideration for
speed of movement. This is the
maximum range a muscle can
achieve with an external force such as
gravity or manual assistance. For
example, holding a hamstring stretch
at an end-of-range position.
2.
Dynamic flexibility describes theuse of the desired range of motion at
a desired velocity (usually quickly).
Dynamic flexibility is the range
athletes can produce themselves. For
example, a javelin thrower or baseball
pitcher needs a lot of shoulder
rotational flexibility, but they also
need to be able to produce it at rapid
speeds of movement.
Here are some useful points:
.
Good static flexibility is a necessarypre-requisite for good dynamic
flexibility; however, having good
static flexibility does not in itself
ensure good dynamic flexibility.
.
Dynamic flexibility is vitallyimportant in those high-velocity
movement sports such as sprinting,
kicking and gymnastics.
.
Dynamic flexibility is limited bythe ability of the tissues to lengthen
quickly, and the inhibition of what is
called the ‘stretch reflex’, which if
present will act to limit the range of
motion (more about this later).
A physiotherapist’s view on flexibility
6
SUCCESSFUL COACHING Dec 2003/Jan 2004 No 8Why is flexibility important?
Good flexibility allows the joints to
improve their range of motion. For
example, flexibility in the shoulder
musculature allows a swimmer to ‘glide’
the arm through the water using
shoulder elevation. This allows the
joints to easily accommodate the desired
joint angles without undue stress on the
tissues around them. It therefore is
essential for injury prevention.
Stretching also forms an integral part
of rehabilitation programmes following
injury. For example, it is accepted that a
muscle tear will heal with scar tissue.
This scar tissue tends to be functionally
shorter and have more resistance to
stretch than normal healthy muscle
tissue. Therefore stretching is used at
an appropriate time in the healing
process to assist in lengthening this
contracted scar tissue.
Good flexibility improves posture
and ergonomics. Our bodies have a
tendency to allow certain muscles to
tighten up which will affect our
posture. Vladimir Janda, a Czech
rehabilitation specialist, describes a
group of muscles in the body that
universally show a tendency towards
tightness and also being overactive in
movements. Some of these include the
hamstrings, rectus femoris, TFI,
piriformis, adductors, gastrocnemius
and quadratus lumborum. These
muscles are often implicated in
postural syndromes causing
musculoskeletal pain.
Flexibility, because it allows good
range of motion, may improve motor
performance and skill execution. Think
of a sprinter who needs flexibility in the
hip flexors to allow good hip extension
at toe-off, and good hip extensor
flexibility to allow necessary knee drive
in the leg recovery phase of sprinting.
Skill execution and reduced risk of
injury will be greatly enhanced if the
body has the flexibility necessary for
that particular sport. There is also an
argument that stretching may reduce
post-exercise muscle soreness, or
delayed onset of muscle soreness
(DOMS), by reducing muscle spasm
associated with exercise.
Relative flexibility
Shirley Sahrmann, an American
physiotherapist, uses the term ‘relative
flexibility’ to describe how the body
achieves a particular movement using
the relative flexibility available at a
series of joints. She believes that in
order for the body to achieve a
particular range of motion, it will
move through the point of least
resistance, or area of greatest relative
flexibility.
A good example is to think of a
rower at the bottom of the catch
position. In this position the rower
must have his hands (and the oar) past
his feet in order to generate the drive
necessary to transfer force from his
body to the oar. If for some reason the
rower has excessively tight hips and
can’t bend up (or flex) the hips (usually
due to gluteal tightness), his body will
find somewhere else to move to
compensate for that lack of hip
flexibility. More often than not, this
rower will flex the lumbar and
thoracic spines to make up for the lack
of hip flexion. That is, the back has
more ‘relative flexibility’, and therefore
contributes to the overall range of
motion. In this case however, the
back will exhibit movement that is
more than ideal, possibly leading
to lumbar and thoracic dysfunction
and pain.
The concept of relative flexibility is
vital when understanding movement
dysfunction in athletes. It is imperative
that joint movements are not looked at
in isolation, for other more distant
joints will influence that movement.
Try this simple test to highlight this
point. Sit on a chair with your upper
backed slumped (that is, assume a
poor posture). Now, maintaining this
position, try to elevate both arms above
your head. Now straighten yourself up
(assume a good posture) and try it
again. Unless you have gross shoulder
dysfunction, you will be able to elevate
more with a straight back than a curved
one. By assuming a slumped position,
you prevent the upper back (thoracic
spine) from extending. This extension
of the upper back is necessary for
full range elevation. Without
extension, it is difficult for the shoulder
to fully elevate.
If you do this for long enough
(months to years) eventually the lack of
movement will attempt to be taken up
elsewhere (such as the lower back, or
the shoulder itself). This may
eventually lead to breakdown of these
joints due to the excessive movement
they may eventually demonstrate.
What factors limit flexibility?
Flexibility can be limited by what
are called ‘active’ or ‘contractile’
and ‘passive’ or ‘non-contractile’
restraints.
Muscle contraction is one of these
‘active/contractile’ restraints. Flexibility
can be limited by the voluntary and
reflex control that a muscle exhibits
while undergoing a stretch, in particular
a rapid stretch that activates the ‘stretch
reflex’. As a muscle is rapidly stretched,
a receptor known as a ‘spindle’ causes
the muscle to reflexively contract to
prevent any further stretch. If left
unchecked, the stretch reflex would
work to prevent elongation while the
muscle was being stretched. A benefit
of ballistic or fast stretching is that the
nervous system learns to accommodate
by delaying the stretch reflex until closer
to end of range of movement.
Furthermore, a resting muscle does
not always mean that it is ‘resting’.
Muscles usually exist with a certain
degree of muscle ‘tone’. An increase
in tone will increase the inherent
stiffness in muscles. If you are
scientifically minded, this describes
the way actin and myosin remains
bound and thus resists passive
stretching of the muscle. The actin
and myosin stay bound because of a
constant low-level discharge in the
nerves supplying that muscle. With
actin and myosin unbound, a muscle
should (in theory) be able to stretch to
150 per cent of its original length.
‘Passive/non-contractile’ restraints
in the form of connective tissues will
also limit flexibility. The passive
restraints include the connective
tissues within and around muscle
tissue (epimysium, perimysium and
endomysium), tendons and fascial
sheaths (deep and superficial fascia).
The important microscopic structure
to consider in passive tissues is
collagen. The way collagen behaves
with stretching will be discussed
shortly.
Other passive restraints include the
alignment of joint surfaces. An
example of this is the olecranon of the
elbow in the olecranon fossa that will
limit full extension (straightening) of
the elbow. Other joint constraints
include capsules and ligaments. The
joint capsule/ligament complex of the
hip joint is important in limiting
rotation of the hip.
Dec 2003/Jan 2004 No 8
SUCCESSFUL COACHING 7The nerves passing through the
limbs can also limit flexibility. As a
limb is taken through a full movement,
the ropey nerve tracts also become
elongated and become compressed.
The nerve endings and receptors in the
nerves trigger a reflex response that
causes the muscle to increase its
resistance to stretch.
In addition to the points mentioned
above, there are a number of other
factors that influence flexibility:
.
An older muscle has moreinherent stiffness due to the
morphological changes in the muscle
and collagen in the connective
tissues.
.
A muscle that has beenimmobilised with a cast will
demonstrate increase in stiffness
over time (longer than four weeks).
.
Excessive training causes morecross linking to occur between
collagen fibres and therefore
increases stiffness.
.
Excessive repeated musclecontractions cause high volumes of
neural discharge. A muscle can
remain in a state of high resting tone
following training sessions.
.
Increase in temperature causes adecrease in muscle stiffness. This
can be environmental temperature or
temperature increases induced by
friction of muscle contraction. We
therefore tend to be less stiff around
two o’clock in the afternoon.
.
Finally, an increase inintramuscular fluid (fluid in the
muscle cell) can increase stiffness
due to a splinting effect. This is the
proposed reason why use of creatine
monohydrate tends to make muscles
feel stiffer.
More about collagen
I mentioned earlier that the connective
tissues in and around muscle are
considered to be ‘passive’ or ‘noncontractile’.
The principal structure in
these tissues we need to consider is
collagen. A key term used in physics
and biomechanics to describe the way
collagen behaves is ‘viscoelasticity’.
Viscoelastic tissues are made up of
viscous and elastic properties. A
viscous tissue will deform and stay
deformed permanently – if you pull on
a piece of play dough, for instance, it
will keep that shape. An elastic tissue
will return to its original length when
the force is removed. For example,
pulling on a rubber band and letting go
– the band snaps back to its original
length.
Viscoelasticity describes a property
of tissues (collagen being one of those
tissues) whereby deformation/
lengthening of a tissue is sustained
and the recovery is slow and imperfect
when the deforming force has been
removed. That is, it will stretch, then
stay stretched for a while before slowly
returning to its original length.
Viscoelasticity tells us a number of
practical things about stretching the
connective tissues in muscle:
.
Studies on the cyclic loading oftissues suggest that most
deformation occurs in the first
stretch, and after four stretches there
is little change in ultimate length.
Therefore there is no extra benefit
from stretching a muscle 10 times in
one session.
.
It takes 12-18 seconds to reachstress relaxation, so there is no need
to hold a stretch for longer than 20
seconds.
.
Greater peak tensions and moreenergy are absorbed the faster the
rate of stretch. This means that a
tissue will generate greater tension if
the rate of stretch is faster and
therefore not achieve the same
length as a tissue undergoing a slow
stretch. That is, do passive stretches
SLOWLY.
.
Once elongated, length changesare not rapidly reversible due to the
viscous nature of the tissue.
However, deformations are not
permanent because the elastic
properties will eventually bring the
tissue back to its original length.
Lasting changes come from adaptive
remodelling of the connective
tissues, not mechanical
deformation. One study in South
Africa showed that stretching every
four hours was the most effective
way to achieve elongation in a
muscle. This may suggest that the
temporary change in length
following a stretch may start to
regress after four hours (Grace
Hughes, unpublished study).
How stretching happens
A number of physical properties of
viscoelastic tissues help describe how
these tissues elongate with stretching.
These properties are creep, load
relaxation and hysteresis.
Creep describes the ability of a tissue
to elongate over time when a constant
load is applied to it. For example, if we
applied 10kg of force to our leg in order
to stretch our hamstring, we might
initially get our leg to 90 degrees
before our tissues prevented further
movement. If we sustained that load,
we would find that our leg would
gradually ‘creep’ a few degrees over a
period of time.
Load relaxation describes how less
force is required to maintain a tissue at
a set length over time. Using the above
example again, if we applied 10kg of
force to get our leg to 90 degrees, we
would find that less force would be
needed (9, 8, 7kg etc) to keep it at 90
degrees.
Hysteresis describes the amount of
lengthening a tissue will maintain after
a cycle of stretching (deformation) and
then relaxation. Again, let’s assume
that if we gained an extra 10 degrees of
range in hamstrings after the stretches
described above, we would maintain
that range for some time after the load
was removed.
Neuromuscular considerations
Certain neuromuscular mechanisms
acting on muscles influence ‘tension’
and have important implications for
the value of stretching. These
mechanisms include the stretch reflex,
autogenic inhibition and reciprocal
inhibition.
.
The stretch reflex is governed by along thin receptor in muscles called a
‘muscle spindle’. The spindle’s role is
to let our feedback systems know
about muscle length and the rate of
muscle lengthening. When a muscle
is rapidly stretched, the spindle (via a
loop of nerves) triggers a reflex
contraction of the muscle
undergoing stretch. A high-speed
stretch will therefore trigger the
spindle and a reflex contraction of the
muscle will limit its ability to stretch.
.
The spindle is also responsible forthe phenomenon known as
reciprocal inhibition. What happens
here is that if a muscle contracts, the
opposite or antagonistic muscle will
relax to allow the movement to occur
without resistance. For example, if
the quadriceps are contracted, the
hamstrings should relax to allow
8
SUCCESSFUL COACHING Dec 2003/Jan 2004 No 8the knee to straighten.
.
The Golgi tendon organ (GTO) isthe important receptor to consider in
‘autogenic inhibition’. The role of the
GTO is to provide information on
tension increases in muscles. This
tension can come from contraction
or stretch. The GTO connects with a
small nerve cell in the spinal cord
that inhibits or relaxes the muscle
where the GTO is found. The GTO
will trigger if a stretch is sustained
(for longer than six seconds) or if the
muscle contracts forcefully.
The way these mechanisms are
utilised will be discussed below under
the heading of proprioceptive
neuromuscular facilitation (PNF) type
stretching.
The theory behind different
stretching types
Static
Held static stretches are done so that
the joints are placed in the outer limits
of the available range and then
subjected to a continuous passive
stretch (gravity, weights, manual). One
obvious benefit is that the chance of
injury is minimal. This type of
stretching is ideal to stretch the
connective tissue/non-contractile
elements since it makes use of the
viscoelastic properties to cause
elongation of the tissue. Furthermore,
it makes use of autogenic inhibition to
trigger a relaxation in the muscle
(remember the six-second rule).
Dynamic
(1)
Dynamic range of motionThis describes a type of stretch
whereby a muscle is taken through a
full, slow and large amplitude
movement. The opposing muscles
are used to produce the force in this
type of stretching. This type of
stretching is done under control and
is not jerky in nature.
(2)
BallisticThe type that is done fast and rapidly
and through large ranges of motion.
An example is leg swings to stretch
the hamstrings.
The benefit of this type of
stretching is that it is sport specific to
ballistic sports and it allows
integration of the ‘stretch reflex’ if
done quite often over a period of
time. As the neuromuscular system
adapts to this stretching, the stretch
reflex will minimise its contribution
to limiting muscle range.
(3)
BouncingSimilar to ballistic, but it is
performed in small oscillations at the
end of range. The dangers of (2) and
(3) are that they can lead to significant
muscle soreness caused by the rapid
lengthening of the muscle. This in
itself initiates the stretch reflex and
increases muscle tension.
Furthermore, it fails to provide
adequate time for the tissues to adapt
to the stretch.
PNF (Proprioceptive neuromuscular
facilitation)
PNF uses the concept that muscle
relaxation is fundamental to
elongation of muscle tissue. In theory,
it is performed in a way that used the
proprioceptive abilities of the GTO and
muscle spindle to relax or inhibit the
muscle in order to gain a more
effective stretch. It does so using
autogenic inhibition and reciprocal
inhibition.
PNF stretching exists in a number
of different forms, but the only ones
discussed here will be the contract
relax (CR), hold-relax (HR) and
contract relax and antagonist
contraction (CRAC) methods.
.
Contract relax (CR)The muscle to be stretched is
passively taken to end of range.
Maximum contraction of the muscle
to be stretched is performed against
resistance (usually another person).
With this form of contraction, the
muscle is allowed to shorten during
an isotonic contraction. This is
continued for at least six seconds
(which allows autogenic inhibition to
occur). The muscle is then relaxed
and taken to a new range and held for
about 20 seconds. This can be
repeated 3-4 times.
.
Hold relax (HR)Very similar to contract relax as
above, but the contraction type is
static/isometric. The muscle to be
stretched is passively taken to end of
range. Maximum contraction of the
muscle to be stretched is performed
against resistance (usually another
person). With this form of
contraction, the muscle does not
shorten during its isometric
contraction. This is continued for at
least six seconds (allowing autogenic
inhibition to occur). The muscle is
then relaxed and taken to a new range
and held for about 20 seconds. This
can be repeated 3-4 times.
.
Contract relax antagonistcontraction (CRAC)
The first part of this stretch is similar
to the CR method above; however,
when the muscle to be stretched is
relaxed after its six second
contraction, the opposite or
antagonist muscle is contracted for at
least six seconds (allowing reciprocal
inhibition to occur). The antagonist is
then relaxed and the stretched
muscle is taken to a new range.
Final thought
I have attempted to give a Readers
Digest version of the background to the
theory of stretching. Some of the
theory is may be difficult to grasp, and
may challenge your existing
preconceived ideas of stretching.
Chris Mallac
References
1.
Moore M & Kukulka CG (1991)‘Depression of Hoffmann reflexes
following voluntary contraction and
implications for proprioceptive
neuromuscular facilitation therapy.’
Physical Therapy
71(4): 321-3332.
Wilkinson A (1992) ‘Stretching thetruth: a review of the literature.’
TheAustralian Journal of Physiotherapy
38(4): 283-287
3.
Zachazewski JE (1990) ‘Flexibility forSports’ in B Sanders (Ed),
Sports PhysicalTherapy
(pp 201- 238). Norwalk, Conn:Appleton & Lange
4.
Taylor DC et al (1990) ‘Viscoelasticproperties of muscle-tendon units. The
biomechanical effects of stretching.’
TheAmerican Journal of Sports Medicine.
18(3): 300-309
5.
Herbert R (1988) ‘The passivemechanical properties of muscle and
their adaptations to altered patterns of
use.’
The Australian Journal ofPhysiotherapy
34(2): 141-149The following are examples of general
static stretching and mobility exercises,
which could form part of the cooldown
programme at the end of a
training session. In all exercises
breathe easily whilst performing them
and hold the static stretches for 20 to
30 seconds.
The exercises
Chest stretch
Stand tall, feet slightly wider than
shoulder-width apart, knees relaxed
and slightly bent. Hold your arms out
to the side, parallel with the ground
and the palms of the hand facing
forward. Stretch the arms back as far
as possible. You should feel the stretch
across your chest.
Biceps stretch
Stand tall, feet slightly wider than
shoulder-width apart, knees relaxed
and slightly bent. Hold you arms out to
the side, parallel with the ground and
the palms of the hand. Facing forward,
rotate the hands so the palms face to
the rear. Stretch the arms back as far as
possible. You should feel the stretch
across your chest and in the biceps.
Upper back stretch
Stand tall, feet slightly wider than
shoulder-width apart, knees relaxed
and slightly bent. Interlock your
fingers and push your hands as far
away from your chest as possible,
allowing your upper back to relax. You
should feel the stretch between your
shoulder blades.
Shoulder stretch
Stand tall, feet slightly wider than
shoulder-width apart, knees relaxed
and slightly bent. Place your right arm,
parallel with the ground across the
front of your chest. Bend the left arm
up and use the left forearm to ease the
right arm closer to your chest. You will
feel the stretch in the shoulder. Repeat
with the other arm.
Shoulder and triceps stretch
Stand tall, feet slightly wider than
shoulder-width apart, knees relaxed
and slightly bent. Place both hands
above your head and then slide both of
your hands down the middle of your
spine. You will feel the stretch in the
shoulders and the triceps.
Side bend
sStand tall, feet slightly wider than
shoulder-width apart, knees relaxed
and slightly bent, hands resting on the
hips. Bend slowly to one side, come
back to the vertical position and then
bend to the other side. Do not lean
forwards or backwards.
Abdominal and lower back muscles
Lie face down on the ground. Lift your
body off the ground so that you are
supported only by your forearms and
toes. The elbows should be on the
ground and should be almost directly
below your shoulders. Your forearms
and hands should be resting on the
ground, pointed straight ahead, toes and
feet should be shoulder width apart and
your head in line with your spine.
Starting Position
1.
Contract your gluteus (bum)muscles gently. Hold for ten seconds
2.
Lift your right arm off the ground,straighten it and point it straight
ahead, holding it in the air for 10
seconds
3.
Return to the starting position4.
Lift your left arm off the ground,straighten it and point it straight
ahead, holding it in the air for 10
seconds
5.
Return to starting position6.
Lift your right leg off the groundand hold it there for ten seconds
(keep back straight)
7.
Return to starting position8.
Lift your left leg off the ground andhold it there for ten seconds (keep
back straight)
9.
Return to starting position10.
Lift your right arm and left legsimultaneously and hold them in
position for ten seconds
11.
Return to starting position12.
Lift your left arm and right legsimultaneously and hold them in
position for ten seconds
13.
Return to the starting positionHamstring stretch
Sit on the ground with both legs
straight out in front of you. Bend the
left leg and place the sole of the left foot
alongside the knee of the right leg.
Allow the left leg to lie relaxed on the
ground. Bend forward keeping the
back straight. You will feel the stretch
in the hamstring of the right leg.
Repeat with the other leg.
Calf stretch
Stand tall with one leg in front of the
other, hands flat and at shoulder
height against a wall. Ease your back
leg further away from the wall,
keeping it straight and press the heel
firmly into the floor. Keep your hips
facing the wall and the rear leg and
spine in a straight line. You will feel
the stretch in the calf of the rear leg.
Repeat with the other leg.
Hip and thigh stretch
Stand tall with your feet approximately
two shoulder widths apart. Turn the
feet and face to the right. Bend the
right leg so that the right thigh is
parallel with the ground and the right
lower leg is vertical. Gradually lower
the body. Keep your back straight and
use the arms to balance. You will feel
the stretch along the front of the left
thigh and along the hamstrings of the
right leg. Repeat by turning and facing
to the left.
Adductor stretch
Stand tall with your feet approximately
two shoulder widths apart. Bend the
right leg and lower the body. Keep your
back straight and use the arms to
balance. You will feel the stretch in the
left leg adductor. Repeat with the
left leg.
Groin stretch
Sit with tall posture. Ease both of your
feet up towards your body and place
the soles of your feet together, allowing
your knees to come up and out to the
side. Resting your hands on your lower
legs or ankles and ease both knees
towards the ground. You will feel the
stretch along the inside of your thighs
and groin.
Front of trunk stretch
Lie face down on the floor, fully
outstretched. Bring your hands to the
sides of your shoulders and ease your
chest off the floor, keeping your hips
firmly pressed into the ground. You
will feel the stretch in the front of
the trunk.
Static stretching exercises
Dec 2003/Jan 2004 No 8
SUCCESSFUL COACHING 910
SUCCESSFUL COACHING Dec 2003/Jan 2004 No 8Iliotibial band stretch
Sitting tall with legs stretched out in
front of you, bend the right knee and
place the right foot on the ground to
the left side of the left knee. Turn your
shoulders so that you are facing to the
right. Using your left arm against your
right knee ease yourself further round.
Use your right arm on the floor for
support. You will feel the stretch along
the length of the spine and in the
muscles around the right hip.
Quadriceps stretch
Lie face down on the floor, resting your
forehead on your right hand. Press your
hips firmly into the floor and bring your
left foot up towards your buttocks. Take
hold of the left foot with the left hand
and ease the foot closer to your buttocks.
Repeat with the right leg. You will feel
the stretch along the front of the thigh.
Remember
These stretches must be effective, safe
and stable in terms of their mechanics
and used to ensure a normal range of
motion in all muscle groups plus any
sport event specific range of motions.
The aim is to relax the muscles and
facilitate an improvement in
maximum range of motion.
Brian Mackenzie
Frequently asked questions about stretching
Stretching is overwhelmingly
recommended, even prescribed, by
sports medicine professionals and is
widely practised by athletes in almost
every sport. It seems to be one of those
common sense things to do. But there
are as many unanswered questions
about stretching, as there are scientific
facts to support it.
A review of stretching research
conducted by Ian Shrier and Kav Gossal,
reported in
The Physician and SportsMedicine
, revealed that the results ofmany of the studies on stretching are
contradictory, inconclusive, or not
necessarily applicable to humans.
Nevertheless, Shrier, Gossal,
Michael Alter MS, author of Sport
Stretch, and Robert Anderson, author
of Stretching, have compiled enough
data to answer many of the questions
frequently asked by serious athletes
and exercisers. Here are some of those
questions and answers.
Does stretching reduce injuries?
‘New evidence,’ say Shrier and Gossal,
‘suggests that stretching immediately
before exercise does not prevent
overuse or acute injuries.’ They add that
continuous stretching during the day
and conducted over a period of time
may promote muscle growth which, in
turn, could reduce the risk of injury.
Perhaps as significant as the injury
prevention information are the data
that point toward stretching as a means
of increasing muscle size and strength.
Does stretching affect
flexibility?
Yes. There is conclusive evidence
regarding stretching and flexibility.
Loss of flexibility can be prevented and
at least partially restored by stretching.
However, that evidence is more
compelling for a long-term stretching
programme than for shorter periods of
time. Stretching to increase flexibility
minutes prior to an event may be
possible, but a stretching programme
over a period of months can lead to a
sustained increase in range of motion.
Can stretching improve
performance?
Yes, if the stretches are designed to be
sport specific. One study showed that
an increase in the temperature of the
vastus lateralis (a muscle in the upper
leg) achieved by stretching resulted in
an increase in vertical jump and an
increase in maximal cycling power.
However, the study did not investigate
whether or not the increase in
temperature could have been achieved
by other warm-up methods. Another
study showed that a 10-week static
stretching programme resulted in
improved performance in tests
involving speed, strength, power, or
muscle endurance.
Additional research has shown
benefits in throwing a baseball and
serving a tennis ball following a
stretching programme that improved
shoulder flexibility.
What is the difference between
static and dynamic stretching?
Static stretching requires that the
muscle be stretched to a point of
resistance and held for a period of time.
Dynamic or ballistic stretching involves
repetitive bouncing, rebounding or
rhythmic motions and is generally
thought to be more dangerous and less
effective than static stretching. However,
ballistic stretching is used by some
physical therapists and athletic trainers
to simulate the movements of
certain sports .
What is PNF stretching?
PNF, or proprioceptive neuromuscular
facilitation, uses alternating contraction
and relaxation movements that are
supervised and controlled by a trainer
or therapist. PNF is an alternative
strategy for increasing range of motion.
How long should a stretch be
held?
One 15 to 30 second stretch per muscle
group is sufficient for most people, but
some exercisers require longer
stretches as well as more repetitions.
How many times should the
same stretch be performed
during one session?
As mentioned earlier, some research
suggests that one stretch per muscle
group is sufficient. However, many
professionals recommend two or three
repetitions for each 10-second stretch,
or one repetition of 30 seconds. The
rationale for multiple stretches is that
connective tissue responds better to
low-force, long-duration stretching
than higher-force, short-duration
stretches.
Are there any benefits in
holding stretches longer than
30 seconds?
There is no evidence that this is
the case.
Should stretches be held for
the same length of time for
each muscle group?
No. Because the stretching properties
vary from muscle group to muscle
group, the optimal duration of a stretch
and the frequency of stretching may
also vary from person to person. Each
athlete must determine the length of
the hold that is most effective.
Dec 2003/Jan 2004 No 8
SUCCESSFUL COACHING 11What is the stretch reflex?
A stretch reflex occurs when a muscle
is first stretched to an extreme. At that
point, a nerve impulse signals the
muscle to contract. It is a protective
mechanism that the body uses to
protect muscle tissues from tearing.
Why do some exercise
scientists recommend
stretching after a workout?
‘When the temperature of muscles is
higher than normal, stiffness
decreases and extensibility increases,’
says Alter. ‘Athletes who want to
maintain or enhance their flexibility
can partially achieve that goal by
stretching when their body
temperature has been elevated,
making it safer and more productive
than when at a normal level.
Lyle J Micheli MD says that
stretching for five minutes after
exercise prevents muscles from
tightening too quickly. He suggests
that athletes go through an abbreviated
version of the stretches performed
before an activity.
Should stretching exercises be
the same for healthy athletes
and those recovering from
injuries?
No. Shrier and Gossal warn that
injuries affect the stretching properties
of muscles. Injured athletes may
require stretches to be held longer to
increase range of motion.
Does the application of ice or
heat have an effect on
stretching?
Warming up a muscle before stretch
or using ice during static and ballistic
stretches can increase the range of
motion, but neither will prevent an
injury. Exposure to increased or
decreased temperature before or
during PNF stretches has no effect.
The mechanism by which ice and heat
affect stretching is not clear, but both
may have a pain-relieving effect that
allows greater range of motion.
Does it help to warm up first
and then do stretching
exercises?
Generally, those who use an active
warm-up prior to stretching get greater
range of motion than those who only
stretch. But any benefits in terms of
injury prevention are more likely to
come from warming up, not because of
stretching. Shrier and Gossal say that if
range of motion is the goal, stretches
are helpful. If injury prevention is the
goal, athletes should drop the
stretching before exercise and increase
the amount of time warming up. But
the ‘warming up’ concept presents even
more confusion because there is no
universal definition of the term.
Summary
There appear to be more benefits from
stretching than disadvantages, but the
picture is not as clear as most
coaches/athletes would like. The
research suggests that stretching
programmes should be individualised
according to the athlete’s physical
make-up and level of conditioning.
Stretching routines should also be
designed to:
.
maintain or improve range ofmotion
.
be free of pain.
recover from injuries that restrictflexibility
.
achieve sport-specific goals.If injuries are prevented along the way,
consider it a bonus.
Anderson brings the common
sense approach back to stretching.
‘Good stretching is knowing your body.
It has nothing to do with how far you
can move a particular part. The
feelings you get when you stretch are a
good gauge. The right feeling is when
you can perform a stretch but it doesn’t
hurt. Do not worry if you can not
stretch as far as someone else, some
people just don’t have the body to be as
flexible as others.’
This article first appeared in the US
publication
Georgia Tech SportsMedicine & Performance Newsletter
Dynamic versus passive stretches
Dynamic and static stretches have very
different effects, according to a new
study. Researchers measured the effects
of passive static and passive dynamic
stretching on two biomechanical
properties of the ankle joint – muscle
stiffness and force relaxation.
Muscle stiffness refers to the ratio
between the change in muscle
resistance and the change in muscle
length. The more the muscle is
stretched, the more resistance to the
stretch is produced. But the lower the
ratio, ie the less the stiffness, the easier
it is to move through the range of
motion.
Muscle stiffness is believed to be
directly related to muscle injury risk,
and so it is important to reduce muscle
stiffness as part of a warm-up.
Force relaxation refers to the
decrease in peak force produced by the
muscle when it is stretched to the end
of its range. After holding a stretch for
some time the peak force relaxes,
which helps the muscle move further.
Force relaxation has also been related
to injury risks and the maximum range
of motion in a muscle.
The study involved 22 active and
healthy subjects. A Kin Corn isokinetic
dynamometer was used to stretch each
subject’s ankle joint. The joint was
stretched into dorsiflexion, stretching
the calf muscle. The Kin Corn machine
also measured the forces in the joint
that resulted from the stretching.
Four different conditions of
stretching were tested:
.
1 x 60 second hold.
2 x 30 seconds.
4 x 15 seconds.
passive continuous motion for 60seconds.
To control the test conditions, subjects
were instructed not to actively increase
the stretch themselves. The results
were as follows:
.
Muscle stiffness decreasedsignificantly only in the final passive
motion condition and not in any of
the static stretch conditions.
.
There was a 16% decreasethroughout the entire range of
motion after 60 seconds of dynamic
stretching.
.
Peak force relaxation decreased inall four conditions – by 10% for the
final dynamic motion condition and
12
SUCCESSFUL COACHING Dec 2003/Jan 2004 No 8by 20% for all static stretching
conditions.
Thus it seems that there are clear
differences in the effects of dynamic
and static stretches. Only dynamic
movement throughout the range of
motion resulted in any reduction in
muscle stiffness, an important factor
in reducing injury risks. However the
static stretches produced the greatest
peak force relaxation effect.
This suggests that dynamic
stretches, slow controlled movements
through the full range of motion are
the most appropriate exercises for
warming up. By contrast, static
stretches are more appropriate at the
end of a workout to help relax the
muscles and facilitate an improvement
in maximum range of motion.
Raphael Brandon
Reference:
1)
Medicine & Science in Sport andExercise,
33(3): 354-358Static flexibility tests
Testing and measurement are the
means of collecting information upon
which subsequent performance
evaluations and decisions are made
but in the analysis we need to bear in
mind the factors that may influence
the results.
Here we will look at a total of five
tests: hip and trunk, shoulder and
wrist, trunk and neck, shoulder
and ankle.
Test 1 – hip and trunk
Starting position
.
Sit on the floor with the back andhead against a wall, legs fully
extended with the bottom of the
feet against a sit-and-reach box.
.
Place the hands on top of eachother, stretching the arms forward
while keeping the head and back
against the wall.
.
Measure the distance from thefingertips to the box edge with a
ruler. This becomes zero or
starting point.
Movement
.
Slowly bend and reach forward asfar as possible sliding the fingers
along the ruler.
.
Hold the final position for twoseconds.
.
Record the distance reached to thenearest 1/10 of an inch.
Repeat the test three times and note
the best distance.
Performance Rating
Table adapted from Johnson BL &
Nelson JK
Practical Measurements forEvaluation in PE
(4th ed 1986).Age <36
Age 36 to 49
Test 2 - Shoulder and Wrist
Starting position
Lay prone on the floor with the arms
fully extended holding a stick
Movement
.
Raise the stick as high as possible,keeping the nose on the ground.
.
Measure the vertical distance thestick rises from the floor to the
nearest 1/2 inch.
.
Repeat the test 3 times and recordthe best distance.
.
Measure the arm length from theacromial extremity to the tip of the
longest finger.
.
Subtract the best score from thearm length.
Performance Rating
Table adapted from Johnson BL &
Nelson JK
Practical Measurements forEvaluation in PE
(4th ed 1986).Test 3 - Trunk and neck
Starting position
.
Lay prone on the floor with handsclasped at the side of the head.
Movement
.
Raise the trunk as high as possiblewhilst keeping the hips in contact
with the ground.
.
An assistant can hold the feetdown.
.
Record the vertical distance, to thenearest 1/4 of an inch, from the tip of
the nose to the ground.
.
Repeat the test 3 times and recordthe best distance.
Performance Rating
Table adapted from Johnson BL &
Nelson JK
Practical Measurements forEvaluation in PE
(4th ed 1986).Rating Men Women
Excellent 17.9 17.9
Good 17.0 - 17.9 16.7 - 17.9
Average 15.8 - 16.9 16.2 - 16.6
Fair 15.0 - 15.7 15.4 - 16.1
Poor <15.0 <15.4
Rating Men Women
Excellent >12.50 >11.75
Good 12.50 -11.50 11.75 - 10.74
Average 11.49 - 8.25 10.75 - 7.50
Fair 8.24 - 6.00 7.49 - 5.50
Poor <6.0 <5.50
Rating Men Women
Excellent >10.00 >9.75
Good 10.00 - 7.99 9.75 - 7.74
Average 8.00 - 5.99 7.75 - 5.74
Fair 6.00 - 3.00 5.75 - 2.00
Poor <3.00 <2.00
Rating Men Women
Excellent >16.1 >17.4
Good 14.6 - 16.1 16.2 - 17.4
Average 13.9 - 14.5 15.2 - 16.1
Fair 13.4 - 13.8 14.5 - 15.1
Poor <13.4 <14.5
Test 4 - Shoulder
Starting position
.
Grasp one end of the ropewith the left hand.
.
Four inches away graspthe rope with the right hand.
Movement
.
Extend both arms in front of thechest and rotate the arms
overhead and behind the
neck until the rope touches
the back.
.
As resistance occursallow the right hand to
slide along the rope.
.
Measure the distance between thetwo thumbs – to the nearest 1/4 of
an inch.
.
Measure shoulder width fromdeltoid to deltoid – to the nearest 1/4
of an inch.
.
Subtract the shoulder widthdistance from the thumb distance.
.
Repeat the test three times andrecord the best distance.
Performance Rating
Table adapted from Johnson BL &
Nelson JK
Practical Measurements forEvaluation in PE
(4th ed 1986).Test 5 - Ankle
Starting position.
.
Stand facing a wall..
Feet flat on the groundtoes touching the wall.
.
Lean into the wall.Movement
.
Slowly slide the feet backfrom the wall as far as
possible .
.
Keep the feet flat on theground, body and knees fully
extended and the chest in contact
with the wall.
.
Measure the distance between thetoe line and the wall - to the nearest
1/4 of an inch.
.
Repeat the test three times andrecord the best distance.
Performance Rating
Table adapted from Johnson BL &
Nelson JK
Practical Measurements forEvaluation in PE
(4th ed 1986).Brian Mackenzie
Dec 2003/Jan 2004 No 8
SUCCESSFUL COACHING 13Here are 10 practical guidelines that will help an athlete avoid
getting injured
Rating Men Women
Excellent <7.00 <5.00
Good 11.50 - 7.00 9.75 - 5.00
Average 14.50 - 11.51 13.00 - 9.76
Fair 19.75 - 14.51 17.75 - 13.01
Poor 19.75 >17.75
Rating Men Women
Excellent >35.50 >32.00
Good 35.00 - 32.51 32.00 - 30.51
Average 32.50 – 29.51 30.50 – 26.51
Fair 29.50– 26.50 26.50– 24.25
Poor <26.50 <24.25
Hints and Tips
An athlete’s greatest strength is often
his greatest weakness, and this is
particularly noticeable among full-time
sportsmen and women. The
compulsive streak in their character,
which drives them to practise hour
after hour, day after day, is their worst
enemy when it comes to handling
injuries. The only way around this is to
put ‘avoidance of injury’ high on the
list of priorities. When making out a
training plan start with the objectives,
such things as improving aerobic
fitness, practising changes of pace or
maintaining flexibility, including
‘avoidance of injury’ in this list brings
it into the reckoning when planning a
week’s training.
These are my guidelines:
.
Never train hard when stiff fromthe previous effort.
.
Introduce new activities verygradually.
.
Allow lots of time for warming upand cooling off.
.
Check over training andcompetition courses beforehand.
.
Train on different surfaces, usingthe right footwear.
.
Shower and change immediatelyafter the cool down.
.
Aim for the maximum comfortwhen travelling.
.
Stay away from infectious areaswhen training or competing very
hard.
.
Be extremely fussy about hygienein hot weather.
.
Monitor the athlete daily for signsof fatigue. If in doubt, ease off.
Never train hard when stiff
This seems obvious but it is seen all too
often at the beginning of a season or in
a training camp. Some people turn up
very fit and set a fast pace in training
and the others suffer for it the next day.
But instead of waiting for the stiffness
to go, they try to go on training as hard
as the day before. The result is that
running is awkward, movements are
not coordinated and injuries are
more likely.
Introduce new activities
gradually
Ideally, one would never introduce
anything new at all, but there is a first
time for everything and there are
bound to be changes of emphasis, the
switch from indoor to outdoor
training or from grass to a synthetic
surface. The solution is to start
switching well before it is necessary.
In switching from cross-country
running to the synthetic track, for
example, one might include a bit of
running on the track whenever the
opportunity arises, even if it is only
three or four laps and a few strides.
The first track session of the year
would only be half a normal session
and it would be done mostly in
trainers. The following week one
might do most of one session on the
track but only part of it in spikes and
for the next two weeks one increases
the proportion done in spikes. After a
month, we might be running three
times a week on the track, with other
sessions being done mostly on grass.
14
SUCCESSFUL COACHING Dec 2003/Jan 2004 No 8Warming up and cooling down
In the British climate this is
particularly necessary. Warm muscles
stretch much better than cold muscles.
Ligaments and tendons are much
more likely to tear when the muscles
are cold and inflexible.
The warm-up procedure helps in
several other ways, too, both physically
in diverting the blood flow from
nonessential areas to working
muscles, and mentally, in focussing
the athlete on the approaching
event.
I would recommend at least 15
minutes and up to 30 minutes warmup
before hard training starts. In ball
games this can often be done with a
ball, carrying out various skill routines,
but in all cases it should start with five
to 10 minutes of gentle movement,
gradually increasing in pace, followed
by five to 10 minutes of stretching, still
in warm clothing. After that one moves
to fast strides and eventually to short
sprints and then stays warm and loose
until the start. A sprinter might well
take 45 minutes to warm up for a 10-
second burst of energy.
During the cool-down period, which
should last for 10 to 15 minutes after a
competition or a hard training session,
the body temperature returns to
normal and the fatigue products are
flushed out of the muscles, which
reduces the chances of stiffness the
next day.
Check the course beforehand
In cross-country and road running
there may be unexpected traps for the
unwary, potholes in the road, sudden
ups or downs, all of which could cause
trouble if you are not prepared for
them, and of course this is closely
linked to the next rule:
Wear the right shoes
Wearing shoes which are too light or
flimsy or which are unevenly worn are
two very common causes of injury. If
you turn up expecting a soft course
and find that it is frozen hard, you
could be in a lot of trouble. I once
arrived for a so-called cross-country
race in Madrid to find that it was all
road. Luckily I had brought my roadracing
shoes, but my England
colleague, who had only spikes, had to
run the race in dance shoes strapped
on with pink ribbon! (1 won, but he
came second.)
At a higher level, Liz McColgan
threw away a chance of winning the
world cross-country title in Boston
because she had not checked out the
length of spikes necessary on the
snow-covered course. Perhaps the
commonest cause of all injuries is
training too much on hard surfaces.
Running fast on roads and tartan
tracks causes a lot of impact shock. I
recommend getting off the road at
least one day in three.
Shower and change after training
This reduces the likelihood of
stiffening up and your chances of
catching a cold. Ideally, a hard session
or a race should always be followed by
a massage if you want to recover
quickly.
Travel in comfort
This sounds a bit sissy, but it is not at
all uncommon for athletes to stay
wedged into a minibus or a train,
sitting awkwardly for several hours
before an important event. I
recommend that you get up, walk
around and stretch once every hour
while travelling, if possible. Apart
from the muscles, the more you can
keep down the stress, the better you
will perform. It is best to get to the
venue the day before the event for
anything big, and if you have to deal
with major changes in climate and/or
time zones it is best to get there a week
beforehand.
Avoid infection
After hard sessions, the immune
system is definitely vulnerable. Athletes
in hard training are particularly
susceptible before a big event. They
should stay away from crowded rooms,
schools, and people with bad colds.
Be fussy about hygiene
All too often people in training camps
or in Games villages pick up stomach
bugs just before the big event, and the
reason is often evident from the sloppy
conditions in which they live, with food
left around, dirty clothing, people
sharing cups and glasses. Athletes, like
most young people, have a sense of
invulnerability, which is positively
dangerous.
Monitor fatigue
This cannot be too highly stressed. In
hindsight it is usually possible to trace
the cause of an illness or injury, and
there is usually a point where the
athletes should have eased off but
didn’t. It is a vital part of the coach’s job
to tell the athlete when to stop and the
athlete must play his/her part by being
aware of the early signs of overtiredness.
A raised resting pulse is a
sure sign.
Attitude to injury
However careful you are, injuries can
occur, particularly in the stress of
competition, and illness can be picked
up, often when the athlete is really fit.
The first thing is damage limitation.
The usual course of events is as
follows:
1.
The athlete feels a little pain duringtraining and ignores it.
2.
The pain recurs, and may even befelt after training, but is not bad
enough to prevent training.
3.
The pain is now bad enough tointerfere with normal training, but
the athlete can still compete, if
he/she rests.
4.
The pain is so bad that the athletecan neither train nor compete.
The time to report the injury and start
treatment is at stage one. The
procedure should be to switch right
away from any exercise, which makes
the injury more painful, and to get
diagnosis immediately, certainly not
later than the next day. At the same
time, coach and athlete should work
out what forms of exercise are possible,
and redesign the programme so that
the athlete is at least doing something
to maintain cardiovascular fitness,
constant body weight and muscle
strength. An inactive injured athlete is
a real ‘sick gorilla’. It is as important to
maintain his morale and confidence as
it is to maintain his fitness, but in these
days of leisure centres, gyms, static
bikes and aqua-joggers it is always
possible to find some suitable exercise.
To take an example: I had a case
where a runner was tripped and fell,
tearing some fibres just below the
kneecap, three weeks before the
Olympic trials. After icing it and
protecting it for the first two days, he
started on daily physiotherapy, and
massaged the area before each session
to stimulate blood flow. He could not
cycle with it but he could walk, do some
circuit training and swim front crawl.
After three days of this he progressed
Dec 2003/Jan 2004 No 8
SUCCESSFUL COACHING 15Contributors
This month’s contributors are:
Raphael Brandon
Raphael runs his own fitnessconsultancy business, and is a specialist in sports
fitness training. He is also London region
strength and conditioning coach for the English
Institute of Sport
Chris Mallac
Chris is an experienced sportsphysiotherapist. He is currently overseeing
physical preparation at Bath Rugby Union
Bruce Tulloh
Bruce was European 5k championin 1962 and has been an athletics coach since
1965. He is the author of more than a dozen
books on fitness and running
Brian Mackenzie
Brian is a senior UK athleticstrack and field coach and an experienced
endurance athlete. He is the editor of the
Successful Coaching
newsletterSuccessful Coaching
is published by Electric Word Publishing plc.67-71 Goswell Road, London EC1V 7EP
Editor:
Brian MackenzieCustomer services:
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Every care is taken to assure the accuracy of the information in
SuccessfulCoaching
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© 2003 Electric Word Publishing. All rights reserved
to walking and jogging on grass, then
to long uphill jogs, trying to avoid
limping. Running uphill on grass
means there is very little stress but the
heart is working quite hard. By the 10th
day he was doing long slow training; by
the 14th day he was able to train hard,
but still mainly uphill on grass. In the
third week he was able to do part of the
session on the track and at the end of
the week he went into the trials with no
knee problem at all and finished
second, qualifying for the Olympic
team.
The key is rapid action when the
injury first appears and a lot of
psychological support to back up the
remedial treatment. It is when things
are not going well that the athlete really
needs his coach.
Bruce Tulloh